Seminars in Nephrology
Volume 24, Issue 4 , Pages 366-378 , July 2004

Nitric oxide, angiotensin II, and hypertension

  • Ming-Sheng Zhou

      Affiliations

    • M.-S.Z. and I.H.S. contributed equally to this work.
    • Nephrology-Hypertension Division, Vascular Biology Institute, University of Miami School of Medicine, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL, USA
    • ,
  • Ivonne H Schulman

      Affiliations

    • M.-S.Z. and I.H.S. contributed equally to this work.
    • Nephrology-Hypertension Division, Vascular Biology Institute, University of Miami School of Medicine, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL, USA
    • ,
  • Leopoldo Raij

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress reprint requests to Leopoldo Raij, MD, Professor of Medicine, University of Miami School of Medicine, Chief, Nephrology-Hypertension Section, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 1201 NW 16 St (Room A-1009), Miami, FL 33125 USA
    • Nephrology-Hypertension Division, Vascular Biology Institute, University of Miami School of Medicine, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL, USA

References 

  1. Faggiotto A, Paoletti R. State-of-the-art lecture. Statins and blockers of the renin-angiotensin system: Vascular protection beyond their primary mode of action. Hypertension. 1999;34:987–996
  2. Brown NJ, Vaughan DE. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. Circulation. 1998;97:1411–1420
  3. Berry C, Touyz R, Dominiczak AF, et al.  Angiotensin receptors (Signaling, vascular pathophysiology, and interactions with ceramide). Am J Physiol. 2001;281:H2337–H2365
  4. Ichiki T, Usui M, Kato M, et al.  Downregulation of angiotensin II type 1 receptor gene transcription by nitric oxide. Hypertension. 1998;31:342–348
  5. Usui M, Ichiki T, Katoh M, et al.  Regulation of angiotensin II receptor expression by nitric oxide in rat adrenal gland. Hypertension. 1998;32:527–533
  6. Carey RM, Wang ZQ, Siragy HM. Role of the angiotensin type 2 receptor in the regulation of blood pressure and renal function. Hypertension. 2000;35:155–163
  7. Li H, Brodsky S, Basco M, et al.  Nitric oxide attenuates signal transduction (Possible role in dissociating caveolin-1 scaffold). Circ Res. 2001;88:229–236
  8. Pohl U, Holtz J, Busse R, et al.  Crucial role of endothelium in the vasodilator response to increased flow in vivo. Hypertension. 1986;8:37–44
  9. Dimmeler S, Fleming I, Fisslthaler B, et al.  Activation of nitric oxide synthase in endothelial cells by Akt-dependent phosphorylation. Nature. 1999;399:601–605
  10. Lucas KA, Pitari GM, Kazerounian S, et al.  Guanylyl cyclases and signaling by cyclic GMP. Pharmacol Rev. 2000;52:375–414
  11. Ignarro LJ, Cirino G, Casini A, et al.  Nitric oxide as a signaling molecule in the vascular system (An overview). J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1999;34:879–886
  12. Massberg S, Sausbier M, Klatt P, et al.  Increased adhesion and aggregation of platelets lacking cyclic guanosine 3′,5′-monophosphate kinase I. J Exp Med. 1999;189:1255–1264
  13. Gewaltig MT, Kojda G. Vasoprotection by nitric oxide (Mechanisms and therapeutic potential). Cardiovasc Res. 2002;55:250–260
  14. Raij L. Workshop: Hypertension and cardiovascular risk factors: Role of the angiotensin II-nitric oxide interaction. Hypertension. 2001;37:767–773
  15. Zhou M, Adam AG, Raij L. Interaction among angiotensin II, nitric oxide and oxidative stress. J Renin Ang Aldosterone Sys. 2001;2:S59–S63
  16. Adam A, Raij L. Nitric oxide—angiotensin II axis in renal and cardiovascular injury. J Nephrol. 2000;13:211–220
  17. Bataineh A, Raij L. Angiotensin II, nitric oxide, and end-organ damage in hypertension. Kidney Int Suppl. 1998;68:S14–S19
  18. Takemoto M, Egashira K, Usui M, et al.  Important role of tissue angiotensin-converting enzyme activity in the pathogenesis of coronary vascular and myocardial structural changes induced by long-term blockade of nitric oxide synthesis in rats. J Clin Invest. 1997;99:278–287
  19. Katoh M, Egashira K, Usui M, et al.  Cardiac angiotensin II receptors are upregulated by long-term inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis in rats. Circ Res. 1998;83:743–751
  20. Huang PL, Huang Z, Mashimo H, et al.  Hypertension in mice lacking the gene for endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Nature. 1995;377:239–242
  21. Ohashi Y, Kawashima S, Hirata K, et al.  Hypotension and reduced nitric oxide-elicited vasorelaxation in transgenic mice overexpressing endothelial nitric oxide synthase. J Clin Invest. 1998;102:2061–2071
  22. Touyz RM, Chen X, Tabet F, et al.  Expression of a functionally active gp91phox-containing neutrophil-type NAD(P)H oxidase in smooth muscle cells from human resistance arteries (Regulation by angiotensin II). Circ Res. 2002;90:1205–1213
  23. Pagano PJ, Chanock SJ, Siwik DA, et al.  Angiotensin II induces p67phox mRNA expression and NADPH oxidase superoxide generation in rabbit aortic adventitial fibroblasts. Hypertension. 1998;32:331–337
  24. Jaimes EA, Galceran JM, Raij L. Angiotensin II induces superoxide anion production by mesangial cells. Kidney Int. 1998;54:775–784
  25. Ronson RS, Nakamura M, Vinten-Johansen J. The cardiovascular effects and implications of peroxynitrite. Cardiovasc Res. 1999;44:47–59
  26. Wang HD, Pagano PJ, Du Y, et al.  Superoxide anion from the adventitia of the rat thoracic aorta inactivates nitric oxide. Circ Res. 1998;82:810–818
  27. Rajagopalan S, Kurz S, Munzel T, et al.  Angiotensin II-mediated hypertension in the rat increases vascular superoxide production via membrane NADH/NADPH oxidase activation. Contribution to alterations of vasomotor tone. J Clin Invest. 1996;97:1916–1923
  28. Guzik TJ, West NE, Black E, et al.  Vascular superoxide production by NAD(P)H oxidase (Association with endothelial dysfunction and clinical risk factors). Circ Res. 2000;86:E85–E90
  29. Higashi Y, Sasaki S, Nakagawa K, et al.  Endothelial function and oxidative stress in renovascular hypertension. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:1954–1962
  30. Rubanyi GM, Polokoff MA. Endothelins (Molecular biology, biochemistry, pharmacology, physiology, and pathophysiology). Pharmacol Rev. 1994;46:325–415
  31. Sasser JM, Pollock JS, Pollock DM. Renal endothelin in chronic angiotensin II hypertension. Am J Physiol. 2002;283:R243–R248
  32. Ortiz MC, Sanabria E, Manriquez MC, et al.  Role of endothelin and isoprostanes in slow pressor responses to angiotensin II. Hypertension. 2001;37:505–510
  33. Boulanger CM, Luscher TF. Differential effect of cyclic GMP on the release of endothelin-1 from cultured endothelial cells and intact porcine aorta. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1991;17(suppl 7):S264–S266
  34. Kramp R, Fourmanoir P, Caron N. Endothelin resets renal blood flow autoregulatory efficiency during acute blockade of NO in the rat. Am J Physiol. 2001;281:F1132–F1140
  35. Qiu C, Baylis C. Endothelin and angiotensin mediate most glomerular responses to nitric oxide inhibition. Kidney Int. 1999;55:2390–2396
  36. Lavallee M, Takamura M, Parent R, et al.  Crosstalk between endothelin and nitric oxide in the control of vascular tone. Heart Fail Rev. 2001;6:265–276
  37. Schiffrin EL. State-of-the-art lecture. Role of endothelin-1 in hypertension. Hypertension. 1999;34:876–881
  38. Deng X, Welch WJ, Wilcox CS. Role of nitric oxide in short-term and prolonged effects of angiotensin II on renal hemodynamics. Hypertension. 1996;27:1173–1179
  39. Ohishi K, Carmines PK, Inscho EW, et al.  EDRF-angiotensin II interactions in rat juxtamedullary afferent and efferent arterioles. Am J Physiol. 1992;263:F900–F906
  40. Ichihara A, Imig JD, Inscho EW, et al.  Interactive nitric oxide-angiotensin II influences on renal microcirculation in angiotensin II-induced hypertension. Hypertension. 1998;31:1255–1260
  41. Gibbons GH, Dzau VJ. The emerging concept of vascular remodeling. N Engl J Med. 1994;330:1431–1438
  42. Berk BC. Vascular smooth muscle growth (Autocrine growth mechanisms). Physiol Rev. 2001;81:999–1030
  43. Raij L. Nitric oxide, salt sensitivity, and cardiorenal injury in hypertension. Semin Nephrol. 1999;19:296–303
  44. Laragh JH. Essential hypertension. In:  Brenner BM editors. ed 6.. Brenner & Rector’s The Kidney. vol 1:Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 2000;p. 1967–2006
  45. Kim S, Iwao H. Molecular and cellular mechanisms of angiotensin II-mediated cardiovascular and renal diseases. Pharmacol Rev. 2000;52:11–34
  46. Tomita H, Egashira K, Ohara Y, et al.  Early induction of transforming growth factor-beta via angiotensin II type 1 receptors contributes to cardiac fibrosis induced by long-term blockade of nitric oxide synthesis in rats. Hypertension. 1998;32:273–279
  47. Minamino T, Kitakaze M, Papst PJ, et al.  Inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis induces coronary vascular remodeling and cardiac hypertrophy associated with the activation of p70 S6 kinase in rats. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2000;14:533–542
  48. Takemoto M, Egashira K, Tomita H, et al.  Chronic angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition and angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockade (Effects on cardiovascular remodeling in rats induced by the long-term blockade of nitric oxide synthesis). Hypertension. 1997;30:1621–1627
  49. Henrion D, Kubis N, Levy BI. Physiological and pathophysiological functions of the AT(2) subtype receptor of angiotensin II (From large arteries to the microcirculation). Hypertension. 2001;38:1150–1157
  50. Ritter O, Schuh K, Brede M, et al.  AT2 receptor activation regulates myocardial eNOS expression via the calcineurin-NF-AT pathway. FASEB J. 2003;17:283–285
  51. Kurisu S, Ozono R, Oshima T, et al.  Cardiac angiotensin II type 2 receptor activates the kinin/NO system and inhibits fibrosis. Hypertension. 2003;41:99–107
  52. Hayakawa H, Raij L. The link among nitric oxide synthase activity, endothelial function, and aortic and ventricular hypertrophy in hypertension. Hypertension. 1997;29:235–241
  53. Schiffrin EL, Hayoz D. Role of AT1 angiotensin receptors in vascular remodeling in hypertension. In:  Epstein M,  Brunner HS editor. Angiotensin II Receptor Antagonists. Philadelphia, PA: Hanley & Belfus; 2001;p. 279–294
  54. Intengan HD, Schiffrin EL. Vascular remodeling in hypertension (Roles of apoptosis, inflammation, and fibrosis). Hypertension. 2001;38:581–587
  55. Touyz RM, He G, El Mabrouk M, et al.  p38 Map kinase regulates vascular smooth muscle cell collagen synthesis by angiotensin II in SHR but not in WKY. Hypertension. 2001;37:574–580
  56. Schiffrin EL, Park JB, Intengan HD, et al.  Correction of arterial structure and endothelial dysfunction in human essential hypertension by the angiotensin receptor antagonist losartan. Circulation. 2000;101:1653–1659
  57. Schiffrin EL, Deng LY, Larochelle P. Effects of a beta-blocker or a converting enzyme inhibitor on resistance arteries in essential hypertension. Hypertension. 1994;23:83–91
  58. Sharifi AM, Li JS, Endemann D, et al.  Effects of enalapril and amlodipine on small-artery structure and composition, and on endothelial dysfunction in spontaneously hypertensive rats. J Hypertens. 1998;16:457–466
  59. Suzuki J, Iwai M, Nakagami H, et al.  Role of angiotensin II-regulated apoptosis through distinct AT1 and AT2 receptors in neointimal formation. Circulation. 2002;106:847–853
  60. Nakajima M, Hutchinson HG, Fujinaga M, et al.  The angiotensin II type 2 (AT2) receptor antagonizes the growth effects of the AT1 receptor (Gain-of-function study using gene transfer). Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1995;92:10663–10667
  61. Martens FM, Demeilliers B, Girardot D, et al.  Vessel-specific stimulation of protein synthesis by nitric oxide synthase inhibition (Role of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2). Hypertension. 2002;39:16–21
  62. Kato H, Hou J, Chobanian AV, et al.  Effects of angiotensin II infusion and inhibition of nitric oxide synthase on the rat aorta. Hypertension. 1996;28:153–158
  63. Rudic RD, Shesely EG, Maeda N, et al.  Direct evidence for the importance of endothelium-derived nitric oxide in vascular remodeling. J Clin Invest. 1998;101:731–736
  64. Kawashima S, Yamashita T, Ozaki M, et al.  Endothelial NO synthase overexpression inhibits lesion formation in mouse model of vascular remodeling. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2001;21:201–207
  65. Numaguchi K, Egashira K, Takemoto M, et al.  Chronic inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis causes coronary microvascular remodeling in rats. Hypertension. 1995;26:957–962
  66. Tronc F, Wassef M, Esposito B, et al.  Role of NO in flow-induced remodeling of the rabbit common carotid artery. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1996;16:1256–1262
  67. Moroi M, Zhang L, Yasuda T, et al.  Interaction of genetic deficiency of endothelial nitric oxide, gender, and pregnancy in vascular response to injury in mice. J Clin Invest. 1998;101:1225–1232
  68. Yogo K, Shimokawa H, Funakoshi H, et al.  Different vasculoprotective roles of NO synthase isoforms in vascular lesion formation in mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2000;20:E96–E100
  69. von der Leyen HE, Gibbons GH, Morishita R, et al.  Gene therapy inhibiting neointimal vascular lesion (In vivo transfer of endothelial cell nitric oxide synthase gene). Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1995;92:1137–1141
  70. Varenne O, Pislaru S, Gillijns H, et al.  Local adenovirus-mediated transfer of human endothelial nitric oxide synthase reduces luminal narrowing after coronary angioplasty in pigs. Circulation. 1998;98:919–926
  71. Zalba G, San Jose G, Moreno MU, et al.  Oxidative stress in arterial hypertension (Role of NAD(P)H oxidase). Hypertension. 2001;38:1395–1399
  72. Grant SL, Griendling KK. Vascular effects of angiotensin II and AT1 receptor blockade. In:  Epstein M,  Brunner HS editor. Angiotensin II Receptor Antagonists. Philadelphia, PA: Hanley & Belfus; 2001;p. 235–256
  73. Zafari AM, Ushio-Fukai M, Akers M, et al.  Role of NADH/NADPH oxidase-derived H2O2 in angiotensin II-induced vascular hypertrophy. Hypertension. 1998;32:488–495
  74. Ortiz PA, Garvin JL. Intrarenal transport and vasoactive substances in hypertension. Hypertension. 2001;38:621–624
  75. Ahmed G, Adam AI, Koushik R, et al.  Interaction of AT1 receptor antagonists and other vasoactive factors. In:  Epstein M editors. Angiotensin II Receptor Antagonists. Philadelphia, PA: Hanley & Belfus; 2001;p. 149–169
  76. Navar LG, Harrison-Bernard LM, Imig JD, et al.  Renal actions of angiotensin II and AT1 receptor blockers. In:  Epstein M,  Brunner HS editor. Angiotensin II Receptor Antagonists. Philadelphia, PA: Hanley & Belfus; 2001;p. 189–214
  77. Brands MW, Hall JE. Mechanism for chronic antihypertensive effect of angiotensin II blockade. In:  Epstein M,  Brunner HS editor. Angiotensin II Receptor Antagonists. Philadelphia, PA: Hanley & Belfus; 2001;p. 171–187
  78. Peti-Peterdi J, Warnock DG, Bell PD. Angiotensin II directly stimulates ENaC activity in the cortical collecting duct via AT(1) receptors. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:1131–1135
  79. Siragy HM, Carey RM. The subtype 2 (AT2) angiotensin receptor mediates renal production of nitric oxide in conscious rats. J Clin Invest. 1997;100:264–269
  80. Majid DS, Navar LG. Nitric oxide in the control of renal hemodynamics and excretory function. Am J Hypertens. 2001;14:74S–82S
  81. Stoos BA, Garvin JL. Actions of nitric oxide on renal epithelial transport. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 1997;24:591–594
  82. Gabbai FB, Blantz RC. Role of nitric oxide in renal hemodynamics. Semin Nephrol. 1999;19:242–250
  83. Majid DS, Said KE, Omoro SA, et al.  Nitric oxide dependency of arterial pressure-induced changes in renal interstitial hydrostatic pressure in dogs. Circ Res. 2001;88:347–351
  84. Navar LG, Harrison-Bernard LM, Nishiyama A, et al.  Regulation of intrarenal angiotensin II in hypertension. Hypertension. 2002;39:316–322
  85. Zou AP, Wu F, Cowley AW. Protective effect of angiotensin II-induced increase in nitric oxide in the renal medullary circulation. Hypertension. 1998;31:271–276
  86. Szentivanyi M, Zou AP, Mattson DL, et al.  Renal medullary nitric oxide deficit of Dahl S rats enhances hypertensive actions of angiotensin II. Am J Physiol. 2002;283:R266–R272
  87. Sarkis A, Liu KL, Lo M, et al.  Angiotensin II and renal medullary blood flow in Lyon rats. Am J Physiol. 2003;284:F365–F372
  88. Schnermann JB, Traynor T, Yang T, et al.  Absence of tubuloglomerular feedback responses in AT1A receptor-deficient mice. Am J Physiol. 1997;273:F315–F320
  89. Traynor T, Yang T, Huang YG, et al.  Tubuloglomerular feedback in ACE-deficient mice. Am J Physiol. 1999;276:F751–F757
  90. Welch WJ, Wilcox CS, Thomson SC. Nitric oxide and tubuloglomerular feedback. Semin Nephrol. 1999;19:251–262
  91. Wang H, Carretero OA, Garvin JL. Inhibition of apical Na+/H+ exchangers on the macula densa cells augments tubuloglomerular feedback. Hypertension. 2003;41:688–691
  92. Morimoto A, Uzu T, Fujii T, et al.  Sodium sensitivity and cardiovascular events in patients with essential hypertension. Lancet. 1997;350:1734–1737
  93. Bigazzi R, Bianchi S, Baldari D, et al.  Microalbuminuria in salt-sensitive patients. A marker for renal and cardiovascular risk factors. Hypertension. 1994;23:195–199
  94. Miyoshi A, Suzuki H, Fujiwara M, et al.  Impairment of endothelial function in salt-sensitive hypertension in humans. Am J Hypertens. 1997;10:1083–1090
  95. Gross V, Schunck WH, Honeck H, et al.  Inhibition of pressure natriuresis in mice lacking the AT2 receptor. Kidney Int. 2000;57:191–202
  96. Obst M, Gross V, Janke J, et al.  Pressure natriuresis in AT(2) receptor-deficient mice with L-NAME hypertension. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2003;14:303–310
  97. Fortepiani LA, Rodrigo E, Ortiz MC, et al.  Pressure natriuresis in nitric oxide-deficient hypertensive rats (Effect of antihypertensive treatments). J Am Soc Nephrol. 1999;10:21–27
  98. Hodge G, Ye VZ, Duggan KA. Dysregulation of angiotensin II synthesis is associated with salt sensitivity in the spontaneous hypertensive rat. Acta Physiol Scand. 2002;174:209–215
  99. Hayakawa H, Coffee K, Raij L. Endothelial dysfunction and cardiorenal injury in experimental salt-sensitive hypertension (Effects of antihypertensive therapy). Circulation. 1997;96:2407–2413
  100. Corti R, Burnett JC, Rouleau JL, et al.  Vasopeptidase inhibitors (A new therapeutic concept in cardiovascular disease?). Circulation. 2001;104:1856–1862
  101. Ruschitzka F, Noll G, Luscher TF. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and vascular protection in hypertension. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1999;34(suppl 1):S3–S12
  102. Linz W, Wohlfart P, Scholkens BA, et al.  Interactions among ACE, kinins and NO. Cardiovasc Res. 1999;43:549–561
  103. Varin R, Mulder P, Tamion F, et al.  Improvement of endothelial function by chronic angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition in heart failure (Role of nitric oxide, prostanoids, oxidant stress, and bradykinin). Circulation. 2000;102:351–356
  104. Mancini GB, Henry GC, Macaya C, et al.  The TREND (Trial on Reversing ENdothelial Dysfunction) Study   Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition with quinapril improves endothelial vasomotor dysfunction in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation. 1996;94:258–265
  105. Higashi Y, Sasaki S, Nakagawa K, et al.  A comparison of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, calcium antagonists, beta-blockers and diuretic agents on reactive hyperemia in patients with essential hypertension (A multicenter study). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;35:284–291
  106. Lisy O, Jougasaki M, Schirger JA, et al.  Neutral endopeptidase inhibition potentiates the natriuretic actions of adrenomedullin. Am J Physiol. 1998;275:F410–F414
  107. Intengan HD, Schiffrin EL. Vasopeptidase inhibition has potent effects on blood pressure and resistance arteries in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats. Hypertension. 2000;35:1221–1225
  108. Quaschning T, D’Uscio LV, Shaw S, et al.  Vasopeptidase inhibition restores renovascular endothelial dysfunction in salt-induced hypertension. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2001;12:2280–2287
  109. Quaschning T, d’Uscio LV, Shaw S, et al.  Vasopeptidase inhibition exhibits endothelial protection in salt-induced hypertension. Hypertension. 2001;37:1108–1113
  110. Trippodo NC, Robl JA, Asaad MM, et al.  Effects of omapatrilat in low, normal, and high renin experimental hypertension. Am J Hypertens. 1998;11:363–372
  111. Bennai F, Morsing P, Paliege A, et al.  Normalizing the expression of nitric oxide synthase by low-dose AT1 receptor antagonism parallels improved vascular morphology in hypertensive rats. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1999;10(suppl 11):S104–S115
  112. Jalowy A, Schulz R, Heusch G. AT1 receptor blockade in experimental myocardial ischemia/reperfusion. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1999;10(suppl 11):S129–S136
  113. Welch WJ, Wilcox CS. AT1 receptor antagonist combats oxidative stress and restores nitric oxide signaling in the SHR. Kidney Int. 2001;59:1257–1263
  114. Brosnan MJ, Hamilton CA, Graham D, et al.  Irbesartan lowers superoxide levels and increases nitric oxide bioavailability in blood vessels from spontaneously hypertensive stroke-prone rats. J Hypertens. 2002;20:281–286
  115. Burnier M. Angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockers. Circulation. 2001;103:904–912
  116. Takemoto M, Liao JK. Pleiotropic effects of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme a reductase inhibitors. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2001;21:1712–1719
  117. Hernandez-Perera O, Perez-Sala D, Navarro-Antolin J, et al.  Effects of the 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase inhibitors, atorvastatin and simvastatin, on the expression of endothelin-1 and endothelial nitric oxide synthase in vascular endothelial cells. J Clin Invest. 1998;101:2711–2719
  118. Wassmann S, Laufs U, Baumer AT, et al.  HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors improve endothelial dysfunction in normocholesterolemic hypertension via reduced production of reactive oxygen species. Hypertension. 2001;37:1450–1457
  119. Wilson TW, Alonso-Galicia M, Roman RJ. Effects of lipid-lowering agents in the Dahl salt-sensitive rat. Hypertension. 1998;31:225–231
  120. Epstein M. Calcium Antagonists in Clinical Medicine. (ed 2).. Philadelphia, PA: Hanley & Belfus; 1998;
  121. Zhang X, Hintze TH. Amlodipine releases nitric oxide from canine coronary microvessels (An unexpected mechanism of action of a calcium channel-blocking agent). Circulation. 1998;97:576–580

☆ Supported in part by research funds from the Department of Veterans Affairs.

PII: S0270-9295(04)00056-7

doi: 10.1016/j.semnephrol.2004.04.008

Seminars in Nephrology
Volume 24, Issue 4 , Pages 366-378 , July 2004

Article Tools

* Image Usage & Resolution