Seminars in Nephrology
Volume 26, Issue 6 , Pages 447-453 , November 2006

The Evolution-Informed Optimal Dietary Potassium Intake of Human Beings Greatly Exceeds Current and Recommended Intakes

References 

  1. Dobzhansky TG. Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution. Am Biol Teacher. 1973;35:125–129
  2. Dawkins R: Science and Sensibility: Queen Elizabeth Hall Lecture, London, March 24, 1998. Series title: Sounding the Century (What will the Twentieth Century leave to its heirs?). Available: http://www.simonyi.ox.ac.uk/dawkins/WorldOfDawkins-archive/Dawkins/Work/Articles/1998-03-24science_and_sensibility.shtml. 1998. Accessed Nov. 10, 2006
  3. Eaton SB, Konner M, Shostak M. Stone Agers in the fast lane: Chronic degenerative diseases in evolutionary perspective. Am J Med. 1988;84:739–749
  4. Williams GC. Darwinian Medicine. Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2001;
  5. Pennisi E. Human Evolution: Genomes Throw Kinks in Timing of Chimp-Human Split. Science. 2006;312:985–986
  6. Patterson N, Richter DJ, Gnerre S, et al. Genetic evidence for complex speciation of humans and chimpanzees. Nature. 2006;441:1103–1108
  7. Fernandez-Armesto F. Near a Thousand Tables: A History of Food. New York: The Free Press; 2002;
  8. Jablonka E, Lamb MJ. Evolution in Four Dimension: Genetic, Epigenetic, Behavioral, and Symbolic Variation in the History of Life. Cambridge: MIT Press; 2005;
  9. Eaton SB, Konner M. Paleolithic nutrition (A consideration of its nature and current implications). N Engl J Med. 1985;312:283–289
  10. Cordain L, Eaton SB, Sebastian A, et al. Origins and evolution of the Western diet: Implications of iodine and seafood intakes for the human brain: Reply to SC Cunnane [Letter]. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;82:483–489
  11. Fogel RW. The Last Great Awakening: And the Future of Egalitarianism. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press; 2000;
  12. The limitations of natural selection. Available: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/misconcep_03. 2006
  13. Eaton SB, Eaton SB, Konner MJ. Paleolithic nutrition revisited: A twelve-year retrospective on its nature and implications. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1997;51:207–216
  14. Simopoulos AP. Evolutionary Aspects of Nutrition and Health: Diet, Exercise, Genetics and Chronic Disease. Switzerland: S. Karger; 1999;
  15. Cordain L. Cereal grains: humanity’s double-edged sword. In:  Simopoulos AP editors. Evolutionary Aspects of Nutrition and Health: Diet, Exercise, Genetics and Chronic Disease. Switzerland: S Karger; 1999;p. 19–73
  16. Eaton SB, Konner M. Paleolithic nutrition (A consideration of its nature and current implications). N Engl J Med. 1985;312:283–289
  17. Eaton SB, Eaton SB, Konner MJ. Paleolithic nutrition revisited: A twelve-year retrospective on its nature and implications. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1997;51:207–216
  18. O’Keefe JH, Cordain L. Cardiovascular disease resulting from a diet and lifestyle at odds with our Paleolithic genome: How to become a 21st-century hunter-gatherer. Mayo Clin Proc. 2004;79:101–108
  19. Trevathan W, Smith EO, McKenna JJ. Evolutionary medicine. New York: Oxford University Press; 1999;
  20. Eaton SB, Eaton SB. Breast cancer in evolutionary context. In:  Trevathan WR,  Smith EO,  McKenna JJ editor. Evolutionary Medicine. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1999;p. 429–442
  21. Cordain L, Miller JB, Eaton SB, et al. Plant-animal subsistence ratios and macronutrient energy estimations in worldwide hunter-gatherer diets. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71:682–692
  22. Institute of Medicine of the National Academies, Food and Nutrition Board: Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate (2004). Table D-5. Mean and Selected Percentiles for Usual Daily Intake of Potassium (mg): United States, NHANES III, 1988-1994. Available: http://darwin.nap.edu/books/0309091691/html/504.html#p2000cb269960504001. 2004. Accessed Nov. 10, 2006
  23. Sebastian A, Frassetto LA, Sellmeyer DE, et al. Estimation of the net acid load of the diet of pre-agricultural Homo sapiens and their hominid ancestors. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2001;12:9A;(abstr)
  24. Frassetto L, Morris R, Sebastian A. The natural dietary potassium intake of humans: The effect of diet-induced potassium-replete, chloride-sufficient, chronic low-grade metabolic alkalosis, or stone age diets for the 21st century. In:  Burkhardt P,  Dawson-Hughes B,  Heaney RP editor. Nutritional Aspects of Osteoporosis. (ed 2). Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press; 2004;p. 349–365
  25. Institute of Medicine of the National Academies, Food and Nutrition Board: Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. 2004. Available: http://books.nap.edu/books/0309091691/html/index.html. 2004. Accessed Nov. 10, 2006
  26. Otten JJ, Hellwig JP, Meyers LD. Potassium. In:  Otten JJ,  Hellwig JP,  Meyers LD editor. Dietary Reference Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements (Institute of Medicine of the National Academies). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2006;p. 370–379
  27. U.S. Department of Health and Human ServicesU.S. Department of Agriculture. Dietary Guidelines for Americans. 2005;Available: http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2005/document/, 2005. Accessed Nov. 27, 2006
  28. Sebastian A, Frassetto LA, Merriam RL, et al. An evolutionary perspective on the acid-base effects of diet. In:  Gennari FJ,  Adrogue HJ,  Galla JH, et al. editor. Acid-Base Disorders and Their Treatment. Boca Raton: Taylor and Francis Group; 2005;p. 241–292
  29. Sebastian A, Frassetto LA, Sellmeyer DE, et al. Estimation of the net acid load of the diet of ancestral preagricultural Homo sapiens and their hominid ancestors. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76:1308–1316
  30. Hene RJ, Koomans HA, Boer P, et al. Adaptation to chronic potassium loading in normal man. Miner Electrolyte Metab. 1986;12:165–172
  31. Rabelink TJ, Koomans HA, Hene RJ, et al. Early and late adjustment to potassium loading in humans. Kidney Int. 1990;38:942–947
  32. Witzgall H, Behr J. Effects of potassium loading in normal man on dopaminergic control of mineralocorticoids and renin release. J Hypertens. 1986;4:201–205
  33. Van Goidsenhoven GMT, Gray OV, Price AV, et al. The effect of prolonged administration of large doses of sodium bicarbonate in man. Clin Sci. 1954;13:383–401
  34. Denton D. The Hunger for Salt. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1962;
  35. Cordain L, Eaton SB, Sebastian A, et al. Origins and evolution of the Western diet: Health implications for the 21st century. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;81:341–354
  36. Cordain L. The Paleo Diet; Lose Weight and Get Healthy by Eating the Food You Were Designed to Eat. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 2002;
  37. Cordain L, Friel J. The Paleo Diet for Athletes: A Nutritional Formula for Peak Athletic Performance. New York: Rodale Inc; 2005;
  38. Eaton SB, Shostak M, Konner M. The Paleolithic Prescription: A Program of Diet & Exercise and a Design for Living. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc; 1988;
  39. Nicar MJ, Peterson R, Pak CYC. Use of potassium citrate as potassium supplement during thiazide therapy of calcium nephrolithiasis. J Urol. 1984;131:430–433
  40. Schmidlin O, Forman A, Tanaka M, et al. NaCl-induced renal vasoconstriction in salt-sensitive African Americans: Antipressor and hemodynamic effects of potassium bicarbonate. Hypertension. 1999;33:633–639
  41. Overlack A, Maus B, Ruppert M, et al. [Potassium citrate versus potassium chloride in essential hypertension (Effects on hemodynamic, hormonal and metabolic parameters]). Dtsch Med Wochenschr. 1995;120:631–635
  42. Morris RC, Sebastian A, Forman A, et al. Normotensive salt sensitivity: Effects of race and dietary potassium. Hypertension. 1999;33:18–23
  43. Morris RC, Schmidlin O, Tanaka M, et al. Differing effects of supplemental KCl and KHCO3: Pathophysiological and clinical implications. Semin Nephrol. 1999;19:487–493
  44. He FJ, Markandu ND, Coltart R, et al. Effect of short-term supplementation of potassium chloride and potassium citrate on blood pressure in hypertensives. Hypertension. 2005;45:571–574
  45. Sudhir K, Forman A, Yi SL, et al. Reduced dietary potassium reversibly enhances vasopressor response to stress in African Americans. Hypertension. 1997;29:1083–1090
  46. Sudhir K, Kurtz TW, Yock PG, et al. Potassium preserves endothelial function and enhances aortic compliance in Dahl rats. Hypertension. 1993;22:315–322
  47. Green DM, Ropper AH, Kronmal RA, et al. Serum potassium level and dietary potassium intake as risk factors for stroke. Neurology. 2002;59:314–320
  48. Khaw K-T, Barrett-Connor E. Dietary potassium and stroke-associated mortality (A 12-year prospective population study). N Engl J Med. 1987;316:235–240
  49. He FJ, Nowson CA, MacGregor GA. Fruit and vegetable consumption and stroke: Meta-analysis of cohort studies. Lancet. 2006;367:320–326
  50. Morris RC, Schmidlin O, Tanaka M, et al. Differing effects of supplemental KCl and KHCO3: Pathophysiological and clinical implications. Semin Nephrol. 1999;19:487–493
  51. Morris RC, Schmidlin O, Frassetto LA, et al. Relationship and interaction between sodium and potassium. J Am Coll Nutr. 2006;25:262S–270S
  52. Fourman P, Robinson JR. Diminished urinary excretion of citrate during deficiencies of potassium in man. Lancet. 1953;2:656–657
  53. Sakhaee K, Nicar M, Hill K, et al. Contrasting effects of potassium citrate and sodium citrate therapies on urinary chemistries and crystallization of stone-forming salts. Kidney Int. 1983;24:348–352
  54. Pak CYC, Skurla C, Brinkley L, et al. Augmentation of renal citrate excretion by oral potassium citrate administration: Time course, dose frequency schedule, and dose-response relationship. J Clin Pharmacol. 1984;24:19–26
  55. Pak CY, Fuller C, Sakhaee K, et al. Long-term treatment of calcium nephrolithiasis with potassium citrate. J Urol. 1985;134:11–19
  56. Sebastian A, Harris ST, Ottaway JH, et al. Improved mineral balance and skeletal metabolism in postmenopausal women treated with potassium bicarbonate. N Engl J Med. 1994;330:1776–1781
  57. Frassetto L, Morris RC, Sebastian A. Potassium bicarbonate reduces urinary nitrogen excretion in postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997;82:254–259
  58. Bushinsky DA. Stimulated osteoclastic and suppressed osteoblastic activity in metabolic but not respiratory acidosis. Am J Physiol. 1995;268:C80–C88
  59. Edwards G, Dora KA, Gardener MJ, et al. K+ is an endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor in rat arteries. Nature. 1998;396:269–272
  60. Haddy FJ, Vanhoutte PM, Feletou M. Role of potassium in regulating blood flow and blood pressure. Am J Physiol. 2006;290:R546–R552
  61. Beck N, Shaw JO. Thromboxane B2 and prostaglandin E2 in the K+-depleted rat kidney. Am J Physiol. 1981;240:F151–F157
  62. Nasjletti A, Erman A, Cagen LM, et al. High potassium intake selectively increases urinary PGF2alpha excretion in the rat. Am J Physiol. 1985;248:F382–F388
  63. Zhou MS, Kosaka H, Yoneyama H. Potassium augments vascular relaxation mediated by nitric oxide in the carotid arteries of hypertensive Dahl rats. Am J Hypertens. 2000;13:666–672
  64. McCabe RD, Bakarich MA, Srivastava K, et al. Potassium inhibits free radical formation. Hypertension. 1994;24:77–82
  65. Frassetto L, Morris RC, Sebastian A. Potassium bicarbonate increases serum growth hormone concentrations in postmenopausal women. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1996;7:1349;(abstr)
  66. Sebastian A, Hernandez RE, Portale AA, et al. Dietary potassium influences kidney maintenance of serum phosphorus concentration. Kidney Int. 1990;37:1341–1349
  67. Brownbill R, Ilich J. Cognitive function in relation with bone mass and nutrition: Cross-sectional association in postmenopausal women. BMC Women’s Health. 2004;4:2
  68. Rabelink TJ, Koomans HA, Hene RJ, et al. Early and late adjustment to potassium loading in humans. Kidney Int. 1990;38:942–947
  69. Witzgall H, Behr J. Effects of potassium loading in normal man on dopaminergic control of mineralocorticoids and renin release. J Hypertens. 1986;4:201–205
  70. Dluhy RG, Axelrod L, Underwood RH, et al. Studies of the control of plasma aldosterone concentration in normal man II (Effect of dietary potassium and acute potassium infusion). J Clin Invest. 1972;51:1950–1957
  71. Jenkins DJ, Kendall CW, Popovich DG, et al. Effect of a very-high-fiber vegetable, fruit, and nut diet on serum lipids and colonic function. Metabolism. 2001;50:494–503
  72. Hene RJ, Koomans HA, Boer P, et al. Adaptation to chronic potassium loading in normal man. Miner Electrolyte Metab. 1986;12:165–172

PII: S0270-9295(06)00143-4

doi: 10.1016/j.semnephrol.2006.10.003

Seminars in Nephrology
Volume 26, Issue 6 , Pages 447-453 , November 2006

Article Tools

* Image Usage & Resolution