Seminars in Nephrology
Volume 26, Issue 6 , Pages 466-470 , November 2006

Acid-Base and Potassium Disorders in Liver Disease

  • Shubhada N. Ahya

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress reprint requests to Shubhada N. Ahya, Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, The Feinberg School of Medicine, 303 E. Superior Street, Tarry Building #4-700, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611.
  • ,
  • Maria José Soler
  • ,
  • Josh Levitsky
  • ,
  • Daniel Batlle

References 

  1. Better OS. Renal and cardiovascular dysfunction in liver disease. Kidney Int. 1986;29:598–607
  2. Cooperman MT, Davidoff F, Spark R, et al. Clinical studies of alcoholic ketoacidosis. Diabetes. 1974;23:433–439
  3. Funk GC, Doberer D, Osterreicher C, et al. Equilibrium of acidifying and alkalinizing metabolic acid-base disorders in cirrhosis. Liver Int. 2005;25:505–512
  4. Gabduzda GJ, Hall PW. Relation of potassium depletion to renal ammonium metabolism and hepatic coma. Medicine (Baltimore). 1966;45:481–490
  5. Gabow PA, Moore S, Schrier RW. Spironolactone-induced hyperchloremic acidosis in cirrhosis. Ann Intern Med. 1979;90:338–340
  6. Golding PL. Renal tubular acidosis in chronic liver disease. Postgrad Med J. 1975;51:550–556
  7. Golding PL, Mason AS. Renal tubular acidosis and autoimmune liver disease. Gut. 1971;12:153–157
  8. Goodkin DA, Krishna GG, Narins RG. The role of the anion gap in detecting and managing mixed metabolic acid-base disorders. Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1984;13:333–349
  9. Kee CS, Choi JW, Chang DK, et al. Hyperkalemia due to hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism with liver cirrhosis and hypertension. J Korean Med Sci. 1993;8:464–470
  10. Moreau R, Hadengue A, Soupison T, et al. Arterial and mixed venous acid-base status in patients with cirrhosis (Influence of liver failure). Liver. 1993;13:20–24
  11. Mulhausen R, Eichenholz A, Blumentals A. Acid-base disturbances in patients with cirrhosis of the liver. Medicine (Baltimore). 1967;46:185–189
  12. Pares A, Rimola A, Bruguera M, et al. Renal tubular acidosis in primary biliary cirrhosis. Gastroenterology. 1981;80:681–686
  13. Prytz H, Thomsen AC. Acid-base status in liver cirrhosis (Disturbances in stable, terminal and portal-caval shunted patients). Scand J Gastroenterol. 1976;11:249–256
  14. Record CO, Iles RA, Cohen RD, et al. Acid-base and metabolic disturbances in fulminant hepatic failure. Gut. 1975;16:144–149
  15. Roberts KE, Vanamee P, Poppell JW, et al. Electrolyte alterations in liver disease and hepatic coma. Med Clin North Am. 1956;40:901–914
  16. Zavagli G, Ricci G, Bader G, et al. The importance of the highest normokalemia in the treatment of early hepatic encephalopathy. Miner Electrolyte Metab. 1993;19:362–367
  17. Cardenas A, Arroyo V. Mechanisms of water and sodium retention in cirrhosis and the pathogenesis of ascites. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;17:607–622
  18. Epstein M, Berk DP, Hollenberg NK, et al. Renal failure in the patient with cirrhosis (The role of active vasoconstriction). Am J Med. 1970;49:175–185
  19. Wilkinson SP. The kidney and liver diseases. J Clin Pathol. 1981;34:1241–1244
  20. Wilkinson SP, Hirst D, Day DW, et al. Spectrum of renal tubular damage in renal failure secondary to cirrhosis and fulminant hepatic failure. J Clin Pathol. 1978;31:101–107
  21. Akriviadis EA, Ervin MG, Cominelli F, et al. Hyponatremia of cirrhosis: Role of vasopressin and decreased ‘effective’ plasma volume. Scand J Gastroenterol. 1997;32:829–834
  22. Epstein M, Levinson R, Sancho J, et al. Characterization of the renin-aldosterone system in decompensated cirrhosis. Circ Res. 1977;41:818–829
  23. Tulassay T, Tulassay Z, Rascher W. Atrial natriuretic peptide in patients with decompensated hepatic cirrhosis. Gastroenterol J. 1990;50:140–143
  24. Cardenas A, Arroyo V. Refractory ascites. Dig Dis. 2005;23:30–38
  25. Gines A, Escorsell A, Gines P, et al. Incidence, predictive factors, and prognosis of the hepatorenal syndrome in cirrhosis with ascites. Gastroenterology. 1993;105:229–236
  26. Shear L, Bonkowsky HL, Gabuzda GJ. Renal tubular acidosis in cirrhosis (A determinant of susceptibility to recurrent hepatic precoma). N Engl J Med. 1969;280:1–7
  27. Krapf R, Beeler I, Hertner D, et al. Chronic respiratory alkalosis (The effect of sustained hyperventilation on renal regulation of acid-base equilibrium). N Engl J Med. 1991;324:1394–1401
  28. Lustik SJ, Chhibber AK, Kolano JW, et al. The hyperventilation of cirrhosis: Progesterone and estradiol effects. Hepatology. 1997;25:55–58
  29. Eiseman B, Clark GM. Studies in ammonia metabolism. III (The experimental production of coma by carotid arterial infusion of ammonium salts). Surgery. 1958;43:476–485
  30. Haussinger D, Steeb R, Gerok W. Metabolic alkalosis as driving force for urea synthesis in liver disease: Pathogenetic model and therapeutic implications. Clin Invest. 1992;70:411–415
  31. McAuliffe JJ, Lind LJ, Leith DE, et al. Hypoproteinemic alkalosis. Am J Med. 1986;81:86–90
  32. Shangraw RE, Jahoor F. Effect of liver disease and transplantation on urea synthesis in humans: Relationship to acid-base status. Am J Physiol. 1999;276:G1145–G1152
  33. Oster JR, Hotchkiss JL, Carbon M, et al. Abnormal renal acidification in alcoholic liver disease. J Lab Clin Med. 1975;85:987–1000
  34. Davidson BK, Haslock I. Osteomalacia secondary to renal tubular acidosis masquerading as primary biliary cirrhosis. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2000;39:1428–1429
  35. Kodama T, Imai H, Wakui H, et al. Tubulointerstitial nephritis with renal tubular acidosis and asymptomatic primary biliary cirrhosis accompanied by antibody to a 52-kDa mitochondrial protein alone. Clin Nephrol. 1996;45:401–405
  36. Tsantoulas DC, McFarlane IG, Portmann B, et al. Cell-mediated immunity to human Tamm-Horsfall glycoprotein in autoimmune liver disease with renal tubular acidosis. BMJ. 1974;4:491–494
  37. Batlle DC, Hizon M, Cohen E, et al. The use of the urinary anion gap in the diagnosis of hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis. N Engl J Med. 1988;318:594–599
  38. Batlle DC, von Riotte A, Schlueter W. Urinary sodium in the evaluation of hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis. N Engl J Med. 1987;316:140–144
  39. Batlle D. Hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis. In:  Seldin DW,  Giebisch G editor. The Regulation of Acid-Base Balance. New York: Raven Press; 1989;p. 319–351
  40. Anderson R. Electrolyte, water, mineral, and acid-base disorders in liver disease. In:  Narins R editors. Clinical Disorders of Fluid and Electrolyte Metabolism. New York: McGraw Hill; 1994;p. 1153–1172
  41. Lino M, Binaut R, Noel LH, et al. Tubulointerstitial nephritis and Fanconi syndrome in primary biliary cirrhosis. Am J Kidney Dis. 2005;46:e41–e46
  42. Leeson PM, Fourman P. A disorder of copper metabolism treated with penicillamine in a patient with primary biliary cirrhosis and renal tubular acidosis. Am J Med. 1967;43:620–635
  43. Casey TH, Summerskill WH, Bickford RG, et al. Body and serum potassium in liver disease (II. Relationships to arterial ammonia, blood pH, and hepatic coma). Gastroenterology. 1965;48:208–215
  44. Casey TH, Summerskill WH, Orvis AL. Body and serum potassium in liver disease (I. Relationship to hepatic function and associated factors). Gastroenterology. 1965;48:198–207
  45. Read AE, Laidlaw J, Haslam RM, et al. Neuropsychiatric complications following chlorothiazide therapy in patients with hepatic cirrhosis: Possible relation to hypokalaemia. Clin Sci. 1959;18:409–423
  46. Isaac G, Holland OB. Drug-induced hypokalaemia (A cause for concern). Drugs Aging. 1992;2:35–41
  47. Laffi G, La Villa G, Carloni V, et al. Loop diuretic therapy in liver cirrhosis with ascites. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1993;22(suppl 3):S51–S58
  48. Stephan F, Paillard F. Terlipressin-exacerbated hypokalaemia. Lancet. 1998;351:1249–1250
  49. Siamopoulos KC, Elisaf M, Katopodis K. Iatrogenic hyperkalaemia—points to consider in diagnosis and management. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1998;13:2402–2406

PII: S0270-9295(06)00147-1

doi: 10.1016/j.semnephrol.2006.11.001

Seminars in Nephrology
Volume 26, Issue 6 , Pages 466-470 , November 2006